레이블이 Difference Between Harmonization and Convergence인 게시물을 표시합니다. 모든 게시물 표시
레이블이 Difference Between Harmonization and Convergence인 게시물을 표시합니다. 모든 게시물 표시

2013년 11월 28일 목요일

About 'harmonization of accounting standards'|Harmonization of The International Accounting System







About 'harmonization of accounting standards'|Harmonization of The International Accounting System








Research               Question               Has               the               formation               of               the               European               Union,               its               related               regulations               concerning               the               environment,               and               the               use               of               the               Euro               as               well               as               the               high               value               of               the               Euro,               affected               car               sales               within               EU               countries               and               outside               of               EU               countries               for               the               European               automakers               that               are               part               of               the               EU?

Furthermore,               how               do               the               European               automaker               compare               with               those               in               the               United               States               in               term               of               profit               and               sales               in               recent               years?

If               the               European               automakers               have               been               weakened               by               new               EU               regulations               or               the               use               of               the               Euro,               in               what               ways               have               they               been               affected?
               Section               1               :               Introduction
               One               of               the               most               debated               aspects               of               the               EU               in               recent               years               has               been               the               acceptance               of               the               Euro.

The               Euro               has               further               united               many               EU               countries               and               has               given               them               an               ability               to               use               an               integrated               monetary               system               that               has               tended               to               be               exceptionally               stable,               valued               highly,               and               liked               by               foreign               investors.

However,               the               value               of               the               Euro               has               also               been               associated               with               its               fair               share               of               problems.

For               this               research               project,               I               am               focusing               on               the               automotive               industry               and               how               it               has               or               possibly               has               not               been               affected               by               the               Euro.

It               is               known               that               a               rising               Euro               can               and               does               affect               the               prices               of               European               goods               in               other               countries.

It               is               also               known               that               a               rising               Euro               can               and               does               affect               the               prices               of               goods               imported               into               the               Euro               area.

However,               little               has               been               written               about               the               affect               on               particular               industries.

In               order               to               evaluate               the               automotive               industry               in               regards               to               the               Euro,               I               must               also               examine               other               EU               aspects               that               may               affect               automotive               sales               and               prices.

Research               has               shown               that               stringent               environmental               regulations               in               the               EU               have               affected               the               automotive               industry.

Therefore,               my               research               will               include               these               aspects               that               may               also               affect               prices.

Furthermore,               regulations               of               sales,               and               mergers               between               automakers               can               and               do               affect               prices.

Finally,               I               will               discuss               price               harmonization               throughout               EU               countries               and               look               at               the               differences               among               countries.
               This               research               should               provide               a               concrete               view               of               prices               and               many               of               the               causes               for               price               increases               and               decreases               in               the               automotive               industry.

Although               there               are               hundreds               of               aspects               that               can               and               do               affect               prices               everyday               in               every               industry,               I               will               examine               only               those               that               have               a               sizable               impact.

Included               in               this               report               will               be               tables               and               charts               that               provide               a               clearer               look               at               the               actual               numbers               of               sales               and               profits               for               several               countries               within               the               EU.

Finally,               I               will               briefly               compare               the               European               automakers               sale               and               profits               to               the               U.S.

automakers               sale               and               profits               to               give               perspective               to               the               numbers               and               success               or               lack               of               success               of               European               automakers.
               This               paper               will               begin               with               a               brief               literature               review.

This               will               consist               of               a               list               of               articles               that               were               pertinent               to               my               research               and               will               also               include               the               major               findings               of               each               article.

This               section               is               useful               for               cross               reference               and               to               further               examine               any               particular               issue               raised               in               this               paper.

The               next               section               will               discuss               the               methods               I               used               to               conduct               research               and               to               gather               data.

Then               I               will               discuss               my               findings               and               present               my               view               of               the               topic               of               this               paper.

This               section               presents               the               collection               of               my               research.

This               section               will               be               followed               by               a               conclusion               and               any               discussions               for               further               research               as               well               as               by               a               complete               bibliography               of               the               works               referenced               in               the               course               of               working               on               this               paper.
               Section               2               Literature               Review:               
               
               1.)               "Stronger               Euro               Worries               European               Countries"               Matthew               Schofield               :               Detroit               Free               Press
               This               article               focuses               on               the               impact               on               automakers               from               the               rise               in               the               value               of               the               Euro.

The               main               point               this               article               makes               is               that               the               cost               of               U.S.

cars               sold               in               Europe               will               drop               as               the               Euro               rises               in               value,               and               the               cost               in               dollars               of               European               cars               sold               in               the               U.S.

will               rise               as               the               Euro               rises               in               value.
               2.)               "Will               Dealers               Continue               to               Sell               the               New               Cars?

New               European               Union               Regulations               Will               Change               the               System               -               But               How               Much?"
               This               brief               article               discusses               the               future               of               car               sales               for               the               European               Union.

Many               examples               are               presented               that               may               change               sales               in               the               near               future               including               a               possible               lift               of               the               regulations               over               cars               and               a               discussion               of               price               differences               in               EU               countries.

As               the               regulations               disappear,               will               car               sales               increase?
               3.)               "To               the               EU               at               Low               Speed"               Artykul               Iwony               Jaskolskiej
               This               article               includes               evaluations               from               surveys               carried               out               by               Pricewaterhouse               Coopers.

The               research               focuses               on               the               Polish               automotive               market.

Much               of               the               article               focuses               on               current               thoughts               of               what               will               happen               to               the               automotive               industry               after               accession               has               occurred.

This               article               relates               to               my               research               because               the               thoughts               and               feelings               of               the               citizens               can               generally               be               used               as               a               valid               predictor               of               the               future               of               an               industry.
               4.)               "Successful               Financial               Year               2003               for               the               BMW               Group"               Automotive               Intelligence               News
               This               is               a               press               release               of               the               sales               volumes               of               BMW.

This               article               examines               profit               in               comparison               to               recent               years               and               also               examines               the               export               numbers               for               the               BMW               Group               in               2003               as               a               comparison               to               previous               years.

This               article               supports               the               position               that               despite               EU               regulation               and               the               difficulties               associated               with               the               Euro,               European               automotive               companies               are               increasing               profit               and               remaining               prosperous.
               5.)               "The               Euro:               Part               III"
               A               complex               article               that               gives               mathematical               and               economical               details               about               exchange               rates,               reduction               of               inflation,               economies               of               scale,               asymmetric               shock,               etc...

This               article               relates               these               formulas               for               economy               to               many               key               industries               within               the               Euro               area               countries.

The               article               also               explores               the               outlook               for               Euro               countries               and               possible               economic               downturns               in               the               future.
               6.)               "Auto               2000:               The               Car               and               Global               Markets"               Verband               Der               Automobilindustrie
               This               article               examines               the               link               between               the               Euro               and               the               automotive               industry.

It               presents               real               figures               and               a               brief               look               at               the               effects               of               the               Euro               on               industries               throughout               Europe.

The               article               also               explores               how               and               why               the               automotive               industry               had               to               prepare               for               the               conversion               to               the               Euro               to               assure               that               sales               and               profits               were               not               lost.
               7.)               "Automotive               Industry               :               Sectoral               Analysis"               Europa.eu
               This               is               an               exhaustive               essay               that               explores               the               automotive               industry.

This               article               examines               the               structure               of               the               EU               auto               industry,               looks               at               car               sales               within               Europe,               examines               trade               including               imports               and               exports,               and               looks               at               profitability               of               the               automotive               sector.

Furthermore,               this               article               examines               the               impact               of               many               key               aspects               such               as               technological               development,               and               Internet               based               sales               on               the               automotive               industry               within               the               EU.
               8.)               "Driving               Down               Car               Prices"               BBC               News
               The               main               focus               of               this               article               is               price               differences               among               EU               countries.

This               article               explores               possible               reasons               as               to               why               there               is               not               price               harmonization               with               the               EU               and               what               could               be               done               to               achieve               price               harmonization               within               the               EU.

The               BBC               has               based               their               article               off               of               the               recently               released               automotive               information               from               the               Competition               Commission,               a               division               of               the               European               Commission.

The               article               mainly               focuses               on               average               car               prices               in               other               EU               countries               compared               to               average               car               prices               in               the               UK.
               9.)               "EU               Automotive               Industry               at               a               Crossroad"               Frost               and               Sullivan
               The               focus               of               this               article               is               to               present               several               reasons               why               the               automakers               in               Europe               cannot               remain               competitive               in               the               world               market.

The               article               points               to               aspects               such               as               taxing               the               industry,               dealing               with               a               highly               valued               Euro,               and               open               trade               from               outside               (foreign)               countries.

The               article               briefly               explains               why               regulations               and               other               restrictions               are               hurting               the               European               automotive               industry.
               10.)               "Toward               a               Single               Price               Tag               :               The               Unified               European               Car               Market               Means               Price               Discrepancies               are               Ending"
               This               article               explores               the               impact               the               Internet               has               had               on               the               automotive               industry               within               Europe.

It               also               examines               how               price               discrepancies               among               European               countries               are               slowly               dissolving.

The               article               cites               recent               mergers               and               acquisitions               as               another               possible               reason               prices               are               becoming               more               consistent               throughout               Europe.
               11.)               "Europe               at               a               Crossroads:               The               Need               for               Sustainable               Transport"               European               Commission
               An               in               depth               look               at               the               transportation               sector               of               the               European               Union.

This               article               presents               all               aspects               of               transportation               within               the               EU               and               then               focuses               in               detail               on               the               various               sectors               of               transportation               including               personal               and               heavy               truck               transportation.

There               are               several               recommendations               within               this               report               to               strengthen               the               transportation               system               throughout               the               European               Union               in               the               future.
               Section               3               :               Methods
               To               begin               this               project,               several               key               assumptions               or               realizations               had               to               be               made.

First               of               all,               based               upon               research               it               was               assumed               that,               "The               euro's               steep               rise               against               the               dollar               has               European               pundits               and               policymakers               fretting.

While               the               currency               climb               is               a               sign               that               investors               hold               more               faith               in               the               euro,               which               is               just               5               years               old,               it               could               threaten               the               pace               of               any               European               economic               advances"               (Schofield:               Stronger               Euro               Worries               European               Companies).

We               can               assume               several               key               issues               such               as               the               rise               in               the               euro               does               affect               the               economy,               it               can               impact               the               automobile               industry,               and               perhaps               most               importantly,               many               people               are               concerned               over               the               affect               that               a               rising               euro               may               have.
               This               accounts               for               the               contribution               of               the               euro               to               the               automobile               industry.

Next               we               must               assure               a               link               between               the               EU               and               the               automobile               industry.

According               to               Artykul               Jaskolskiej               in               To               the               EU               at               Low               Speed,               "The               automotive               industry               is               also               aware               of               the               positive               aspects               of               the               accession.

Every               fourth               entrepreneur               is               counting               on               having               easier               access               to               EU               markets.

This               may               mean               that               at               least               some               of               them               are               soon               going               to               commence               looking               for               new               markets               for               their               good               and               services               or               source               of               supplies               in               the               Member               States."               This               statement               accounts               for               the               positive               reinforcement               that               the               EU               can               have               on               the               automotive               industry.

However,               the               basis               for               possible               negative               contribution               that               the               EU               may               have               on               the               automobile               industry               is               summed               in               this               statement               by               M.

Maheswaran               "EU               Automotive               Industry               at               a               Crossroads?",               "The               automotive               industry               has               been               targeted               whenever               a               EU               member               country               wanted               to               source               additional               revenue.

Tax               revenue               from               the               automotive               industry               exceed               350               billion               euro,               that               is,               15               percent               of               the               total               revenues               of               the               E.U.

governments               and               4               percent               of               the               EU               GDP.

Mounting               pressure               from               the               SGP               forced               Germany               to               hike               taxes               for               company               cars               in               2002               as               a               means               to               improving               its               fiscal               revenue."               From               this               statement               we               can               then               assume               that               there               is               a               negative               aspect               between               the               EU               and               the               European               automakers.
               Finally,               we               must               link               environmental               regulations               to               the               cost               and               competitiveness               of               European               Cars.

This               assumption               lies               mainly               around               the               Euro               IV               norms,               a               stringent               emissions               regulation               enforced               by               the               EU.

According               to               M.

Mahreswaran               in               "EU               Automotive               Industry               at               a               Crossroads,               "The               WBE               (Weakened               Block               Exemption)               is               also               redefining               the               supply               chain,               dealer               network,               and               price               mechanism.

Price               convergence               and               increasing               incentives               squeeze               profitability.

Euro               IV               norms               have               mounted               pressure               on               manufacturers               to               comply               with               new               standards.

To               match               these               new               norms,               manufacturers               need               to               increase               R               &               D               (ride               and               drive)               expenses               for               developing               new               products."               Since               it               is               evident               that               the               EU,               the               Euro,               and               various               regulations               can               and               do               affect               the               automotive               industry               in               European               countries,               the               question               that               remains               to               be               answered               is               in               what               ways,               and               what               is               the               net               affect?
               Section               4               :               Analysis               

               Throughout               the               course               of               my               research,               a               few               issues               became               prominent               when               trying               to               determine               what               does               affect               the               prices               and               sales               of               cars               from               European               automakers               in               regards               to               the               EU               and               the               euro.

First,               I               will               briefly               describe               why               environmental               regulations               of               the               EU               have               caused               price               increases               for               European               automakers.
               A               new               set               of               standards               referred               to               as               Euro               IV,               continue               to               pressure               automakers               into               making               there               cars               more               environmentally               friendly.

Usually,               this               requires               additional               testing,               more               emissions               equipment,               and               longer               life               expectancy               for               certain               vital               emissions               components               on               a               particular               vehicle.

Generally,               testing               is               expensive.

Therefore,               the               requirement               of               any               additional               testing               will               increase               the               price               of               a               vehicle.

Furthermore,               making               longer               lasting               parts               and               incorporating               more               parts               into               a               vehicle               also               increases               the               net               cost               of               production.

Euro               IV               regulations               are               cited               as               being               overly               concerned               with               the               environment,               with               little               concern               for               the               cost               associated               with               meeting               these               demands.

The               automakers               must               pay               for               the               increase               entirely,               and               most               have               increased               sale               prices               to               overcome               the               new               costs.
               The               second               factor               that               I               will               discuss               that               affects               the               price               and               sales               of               vehicles               from               European               automakers               is               related               to               EU               regulations               and               more               specifically               to               the               Weakened               Block               Exemption               (WBE).

According               to               Frost               and               Sullivan               writer               M.

Maheswaran,               "As               the               New               Block               Exemption               extended               to               the               automotive               industry               ended               in               September               2002,               and               was               replaced               by               a               weakened               block               exemption,               the               competition               is               likely               to               stiffen               in               the               EU               region,               especially               from               Asian               manufacturers.

As               increased               competition               is               likely               to               aggravate               the               price               war,               the               price               differences               prevailing               in               the               EU               will               be               marginalized."               The               weakened               block               exemption               allows               more               vehicles               to               be               imported               to               the               EU               region.

Some               restrictions               do               still               exist.

However,               the               market               will               now               be               more               open               to               outside               competition.

This               will               likely               cause               prices               of               European               automobiles               sold               in               the               EU               to               drop               to               better               compete               with               outside               competition.

Although               this               will               be               better               for               the               consumer,               and               likely               will               increase               sales,               the               profit               per               vehicle               will               diminish               for               the               European               automaker.

This               has               forced               many               automakers               to               look               for               revenue               elsewhere.

As               Frost               and               Sullivan               writer               M.

Maheswaran               further               states,               "Frost               and               Sullivan               expects               the               automotive               manufacturers               to               diversify               their               activities               into               after-sales               markets               such               as               financing,               guarantee,               used               cars,               and               fleet               management               to               generate               new               revenue               streams               and               better               margins."               The               WBE               is               also               forcing               manufacturers               to               redefine               the               supply               chain,               dealer               network,               and               price               mechanisms.

Price               convergence               throughout               the               European               countries               or               a               homogenized               price               throughout               Europe               further               squeezes               profit               in               certain               markets.
               Finally,               the               price               differences               throughout               European               countries               have               spawned               a               new               market               of               Internet               sales               of               automobiles.

A               dealer               will               purchase               a               car               in               a               European               country               or               a               foreign               country               that               offers               the               lowest               price               on               a               particular               model.

He               will               then               sell               that               vehicle               over               the               Internet               to               citizens               in               any               European               country.

This               offers               the               buyer               the               best               possible               price               throughout               Europe.

According               to               the               BBC               News,               "Some               forecourts               are               doing               a               thriving               trade               in               European               Imports,               offering               saving               of               thousands               of               pounds.

Internet               sites               are               also               promoting               their               services,               sourcing               most               of               their               car               from               overseas               to               offer               the               cheapest               prices.

The               way               people               buy               their               cars               have               changed               over               a               short               period               of               time,               and               they               are               learning               that               shopping               around               can               produce               big               savings."               For               the               European               market,               this               new               form               of               sales               can               only               hurt               their               overall               profit.

By               giving               consumers               the               chance               to               find               the               lowest               price,               and               therefore               making               the               manufacturers               profit               as               low               as               possible,               the               manufacturers               lose.

The               lack               of               price               convergence               throughout               Europe               has               caused               this               outcome,               and               new               EU               regulations               are               needed               to               remedy               it.

According               to               the               article               "Towards               a               Single               Price               Tag"               ,               "These               longstanding               price               differentials,               also               the               rule               in               Britain,               France,               and               other               major               European               markets,               make               it               well               worth               consumers'               while               to               travel               a               few               hours               (to               another               country)               and               pick               up               their               new               cars."
               Finally,               and               perhaps               the               issue               that               most               European               automakers               are               concerned               about               is               the               euro               and               what               affect               it               will               have               on               sales               and               profitability.

The               main               concern               over               the               euro               usually               centers               upon               the               rising               value               of               the               euro.

As               stated               earlier               Matthew               Schofield               of               the               Detroit               News               said,               "The               euro's               steep               rise               against               the               dollar               has               European               pundits               and               policymakers               fretting.

While               the               currency               climb               is               a               sign               that               investors               hold               more               faith               in               the               euro,               which               is               just               5               years               old,               it               could               threaten               the               pace               of               any               European               economic               advances."               To               view               this               rise               in               value,               we               must               examine               the               euro's               value               over               several               years.

The               euro               was               worth               approximately               80               cents               in               2002.

Just               as               recently               as               October               2003               the               euro               was               worth               $1.14.

The               euro               was               valued               at               about               $1.27               in               January               of               this               year,               and               most               economists               predict               it               should               reach               over               $1.40               by               the               end               of               this               year.

This               increase               is               dramatic               and               perhaps               too               quick               to               maintain               a               stable               economic               system.

So               what               does               the               climbing               value               of               the               euro               mean?

Well               it               means               different               things               to               different               manufacturers.

For               Volkwagen               AG,               it               has               meant               a               shift               of               production               from               Europe               to               North               America,               as               well               as               purchasing               more               parts               from               the               North               American               market.

For               Daimler               Chrysler               AG,               who               has               major               production               facilities               in               both               Europe               and               the               United               States,               it               means               that               they               have               a               competitive               edge               when               they               attempt               to               sell               cars               made               in               America               in               the               European               market.

For               other               companies,               the               rising               euro               has               a               different               outcome.
               The               rising               euro               has               a               definitive               affect               on               imports               and               exports               which               contribute               to               the               GDP               of               a               nation.

Europe               is               dependent               upon               exports               to               other               countries.

The               rising               value               of               the               euro               makes               European               cars               cost               more               in               other               countries.

The               rise               in               the               value               of               the               euro               makes               European               cars               more               expensive               to               buy               here               in               the               United               States,               which               translates               into               slightly               less               vehicles               actually               being               bought.

Rather               than               raise               prices,               most               Europeans               automakers               have               found               ways               to               cut               costs,               and               keep               prices               relatively               stable.

However,               if               the               value               of               the               euro               continues               to               rise,               they               will               not               be               able               to               continue               to               cut               costs.

Finally,               the               value               of               the               euro               makes               imported               cars               less               costly               in               Europe.

This               in               turn               has               led               citizens               to               buying               imported               or               foreign               cars               more               so               than               they               have               in               the               past.

This               reduces               the               number               of               European               cars               being               bought               in               Europe               which               further               weaken               European               automakers.
               However,               the               introduction               of               the               euro               has               strengthened               the               European               economic               region               as               a               whole.

According               to               the               VDA               article               titled               Auto               2000,               "In               this               era               of               globalization               and               networking,               the               importance               of               national               borders               is               receding               and               with               it,               the               power               of               government               agencies               to               influence               the               market               and               society.

The               European               states               can               stand               up               most               effectively               to               the               major               economics               blocs               of               the               USA,               Japan               and               even               China               as               partners               in               an               integrated               economic               region.

A               common               currency               helps               assure               reliable               planning               and               promotes               competition               and               integration."               Since               the               euro               has               united               European               countries               and               expanded               their               overall               power,               it               has               also               expanded               its               market               and               ability               to               hold               a               high               market               share               in               the               automobile               industry.

Furthermore,               an               expanded               euro               zone               makes               trading               easier,               more               accessible,               and               makes               the               trade               market               larger               leading               to               increased               sales.

As               can               be               seen,               the               affect               of               the               euro               is               twofold.

It               has               both               negative               and               positive               affects,               and               only               time               will               tell               which               affect               will               be               stronger.
               Conclusion               
               
               In               closing,               I               would               like               to               reinforce               several               key               ideas               that               I               have               discussed               throughout               the               course               of               this               paper.

First,               and               perhaps               most               importantly,               the               automobile               manufacturers               throughout               the               EU               are               indeed               affected               by               several               EU               regulations               and               laws,               the               use               of               the               Euro,               and               the               environmental               protection               measures               that               are               presented               by               the               EU               as               guidelines               for               automaker               to               follow.

However,               it               should               not               be               looked               at               in               a               negative               manner.

The               EU               and               its               associated               rules               and               regulations               may               indeed               hamper               the               progress               and               competitiveness               of               European               automakers,               but               the               open               market               created               new               areas               for               sale,               and               allowed               products               to               be               made               in               other               more               profitable               areas               for               the               automakers.

Furthermore,               the               EU's               yearning               for               high               exports               have               allowed               manufacturers               to               find               new               markets               abroad               and               also               to               expand               existing               markets               abroad.

The               Euro               has               created               problems               for               the               automakers               as               the               value               has               risen               and               made               exports               of               their               products               cost               more               in               foreign               countries.

At               the               same               time,               the               euro               has               made               transactions               easier               for               European               automakers,               and               gave               them               a               reliable               source               of               currency               throughout               the               Euro               zone.

This               has               increased               stability               for               automakers               and               reduced               accounting               costs               among               other               things.

Overall,               it               should               be               noted               that               the               EU,               along               with               its               regulations,               laws,               environmental               protection               issues,               and               the               use               of               the               euro,               have               both               negatively               and               positively               affected               the               sales               and               profit               of               the               European               automakers.

In               a               way,               the               EU               could               be               viewed               as               having               very               little,               if               any               net               affect               on               the               European               automakers.

However,               we               must               still               observe               the               rising               value               of               the               euro               and               see               if               a               future               negative               impact               is               coming               for               these               automakers.
               Bibliography
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               Jaskolskiej,               Artykul               Iwony.

To               the               EU               at               Low               Speed.

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"EU               Automotive               Industry               at               a               Crossroads?"               Frost               and               Sullivan               1               Dec.

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"Toward               a               Single               Price               Tag."               IHT               14               Sept.

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